European Defence: The Challenge of Strategic Autonomy

ANNEX 1 -
CSDP MISSIONS AND OPERATIONS

The Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) provides for a role for the European Union (EU) in peacekeeping, conflict prevention, and the strengthening of international security. Pursuant to Article 42-1 of the TEU, the CSDP “shall provide the Union with an operational capacity drawing on civilian and military assets. The Union may use them on missions outside the Union for peace-keeping, conflict prevention and strengthening international security in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter.”

Since 2003, the Member States have thus launched 33 missions and operations. As of June 2019, 16 missions or operations remain on-going in Africa, the Middle East, the Mediterranean, the Indian Ocean, the Balkans and Eastern Europe. Decisions regarding the CSDP are made unanimously by the Council upon the proposal of the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy or upon the initiative of a Member State.

10 of these missions are civilian. Civilian missions focus on the training of third country security forces or on strategic advisory activities. These missions are financed by the EU budget as part of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP).

Name of mission	Location	First mandate	Objectives
EUBAM Rafah	Palestinian Territories	2005	To ensure a neutral presence at the Rafah crossing point; training for Palestinian border guards.
EUPOL COPPS	Palestinian Territories	2006	Mission to provide support to police and strategic advisory services.
EUMM Georgia	Georgia	2008	Ceasefire monitoring; facilitating a return to “normal” life for communities.
EUCAP Sahel Niger	Niger	2012	To strengthen internal security capabilities (advice and training).
EUCAP Somalia	Somalie	2012	To strengthen local maritime police capabilities.
EUBAM Libya	Libya	2013	To support border management.
EUCAP Sahel Mali	Mali	2014	To strengthen internal security capabilities (advice and training).
EUAM Ukraine	Ukraine	2014	To assist the Ukrainian authorities in the reform of the civil security sector.
EULEX Kosovo	Kosovo	2014	To assist and support the Kosovo authorities in areas related to the rule of law, in particular police, justice and customs.
EUAM Irak	Iraq	2017	To assist Iraqi authorities in the reform of the civil security sector.

The CSDP also includes 6 military operations and missions. 3 are under an executive mandate (“operations”) and 3 are focused on training and advisory objectives (“missions”). These operations and missions are financed directly by the Member States. Some costs are borne on a shared basis under what is called the “Athena mechanism,” where the contribution made by each State depends on their GDP.

Name of mission	Location	Executive mandate	First mandate	Objectives
EUTM Mali	Mali	No	2013	Training and advice to the Malian Armed Forces.
EUTM Somalia	Somalia	No	2010	Training and advice to the Somalian Armed Forces.
EUTM RCA	Central African Republic	No	2016	Training and advice to Central African armed forces.
EUNAVFOR Med Sophia	Mediterranean - Libya	Yes	2015	To combat the smuggling of migrants in the Mediterranean Sea; training of Libyan Coast Guard forces.
EUNARVOR Atalanta	Indian Ocean - Horn of Africa	Yes	2008	To fight against piracy in the Indian Ocean; To protect World Food Programme vessels.
EUFOR Althéa	Bosnia and Herzegovina	Yes	2004	To assist the authorities of Bosnia and Herzegovina (training) and contribute to the maintenance of a safe environment; to ensure compliance with the military component of the Dayton Agreements.

ANNEX 2 - PESCO PROJECTS

Pursuant to Articles 42 and 46 TEU, Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) was adopted on 11 December 2017 by the Council of the European Union (EU). It gives EU Member States the opportunity to cooperate more closely in the area of ??security and defence , and takes the form of joint projects essentially of a capacity-building nature. To date, 25 States have joined PESCO. ^{81 ( * )}

Two waves of projects were adopted at the councils held 6 March 2018 and 11 November 2018, bringing the total number to 34. France is involved in 21 of these projects, including 8 as a “lead.” The table below details the 34 projects and their participants, with the lead State in bold. Note that States may also decide to remain as “observers” only on certain projects.

Project	Date adopted	Participating countries	Objectives
TRAINING CAPABILITIES
European Union Training Mission Competence Centre (EU TMCC).	6 March 2018	Germany , Czech Republic, Spain, France , Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Austria, Romania, Sweden.	To strengthen the skills and interoperability of EU Training Mission (EUTM) staff.
European Training Certification Centre for European Armies.	6 March 2018	Italy , Greece.	To promote the harmonisation of the procedures of the various European armies and allow training in a simulated environment, in order to reinforce the conduct of CSDP missions.
Helicopter Hot and High Training (H3 Training) [high temperature and high altitude].	19 November 2018	Greece , Italy, Romania.	To strengthen the skills of European pilots, military or civilian, to face new threats in a “hot and high” environment.
Joint EU Intelligence School.	19 November 2018	Greece , Cyprus.	To strengthen the skills of European intelligence personnel
EU Test and Evaluation Centres.	19 November 2018	France , Sweden , Spain, Slovakia.	To develop the Vidsel Test and Evaluation Centre (Sweden); to develop a European network of testing and evaluation centres, and ensure the prioritisation of European projects in their use.
LAND CAPABILITIES
Deployable Military Disaster Relief Capability Package.	6 March 2018	Italy , Greece, Spain, Croatia, Austria.	To develop a European capacity for the management of disasters, disaster relief and pandemics that can be deployed within missions and operations; to establish a dedicated European training centre.
Armoured Infantry Fighting Vehicles / Amphibious Assault Vehicles / Light Armoured Vehicles.	6 March 2018	Italy , Greece, Slovakia.	To develop common prototypes of armoured infantry combat vehicles, amphibious assault vehicles, and light armoured vehicles.
Indirect Fire Support (EuroArtillery).	6 March 2018	Slovakia , Italy, Hungary.	To develop a mobile platform for precision artillery fire.
Integrated Unmanned Ground System (UGS).	19 November 2018	Estonia , Belgium, Czech Republic, Spain, France , Latvia, Hungary, Germany, Netherlands, Poland, Finland.	To develop a multifunction integrated terrestrial autonomous system (UAV): transport, satellite imagery, sensors....
EU Beyond the Line Of Sight (BLOS) Land Battlefield Missile Systems.	19 November 2018	France , Belgium, Cyprus.	Develop new-generation land-based tactical missile systems beyond the line of sight (BLOS).
NAVAL CAPABILITIES
Maritime (semi-) Autonomous Systems for Mine Countermeasures (MAS MCM).	6 March 2018	Belgium , Greece, Latvia, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania.	To develop autonomous underwater systems (drones) to detect and destroy mines.
Harbour and Maritime Surveillance and Protection (HARMSPRO).	6 March 2018	Italy , Greece, Poland, Portugal.	To develop a system that brings together existing technologies for critical infrastructure protection in port and maritime areas.
Upgrade of Maritime Surveillance.	6 March 2018	Greece , Bulgaria, Ireland, Spain, Croatia, Italy, Cyprus.	To enhance maritime surveillance and the responsiveness of Member States by improving information sharing, through the use of existing infrastructure and the development of new capabilities.
Deployable Modular Underwater Intervention Capability Package (DIVEPACK).	19 November 2018	Bulgaria , Greece, France .	To develop an interoperable “DIVEPACK” device capable of covering a wide spectrum of defensive submarine operations, including autonomous underwater systems (drones), available for CSDP military operations.
AIR CAPABILITIES
European Medium Altitude Long Endurance Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems, or European MALE RPAS (Eurodrone).	19 November 2018	Germany , Czech Republic, Spain, France , Italy	To develop a medium altitude long distance European aerial drone, operational by 2025.
European Attack Helicopters TIGER Mark III.	19 November 2018	France , Germany, Spain.	To significantly improve the Tiger Attack Helicopter by improving its detection, attack and communication capabilities.
Counter Unmanned Aerial System (C-UAS).	19 November 2018	Italy , Czech Republic	To develop a system to fight against small aerial drones.
CYBER, “C4ISR” ^82 ( * )
European Secure Software-defined Radio (ESSOR).	6 March 2018	France , Belgium, Germany, Spain, Italy, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Finland	To develop common technologies for military radio communications in order to ensure the interoperability of European forces and enhance the security of military communications.
Cyber Threats and Incident Response Information Sharing Platform.	6 March 2018	Greece , Spain, Italy, Cyprus, Hungary, Austria, Portugal.	To create platforms to ensure a higher level of cyber resilience for Member States, particularly by enhanced information sharing.
Cyber Rapid Response Teams and Mutual Assistance in Cyber Security.	7 May 2019	Lithuania , Estonia, Croatia, Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Finland.	To set up rapid response teams allowing States to help each other confront cyber threats and respond collectively.
Strategic Command and Control (C2) System for CSDP Missions and Operations.	6 March 2018	Spain , France , Germany, Italy, Portugal	To improve the command and control systems of EU missions and operations at the strategic level.
European High Atmosphere Airship Platform (EHAAP) - Persistent Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR) Capability.	19 November 2019	Italy, France.	To develop an innovative and persistent ISR (stratospheric airships) platform with ample freedom of movement.
One Deployable Special Operations Forces (SOF) Tactical Command and Control (C2) Command Post (CP) for Small Joint Operations (SJO) - (SOCC) for SJO.	19 November 2018	Greece , Cyprus.	To establish and operate a deployable command post for tactical command and control (C2) of special operations forces (SOF) in “small” joint operations with the objective of operational capability by 2024.
Electronic Warfare Capability and Interoperability - Programme for Future Joint Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (JISR) Cooperation	19 November 2018	Czech Republic , Germany.	To produce a comprehensive study of European electronic warfare capabilities in advance of the adoption of a common concept of operations (CONOPS) for electronic warfare, with a view to creating a common electronic warfare unit.
SUPPORT FOR OPERATIONS
EUFOR Crisis Response Operation Core (EUFOR CROC).	6 March 2018	Germany , Spain, France , Italy, Cyprus.	To contribute to the creation of a coherent set of full spectrum forces, with the aim of progressively reducing the gap between the capabilities of the EU Battlegroups and the level of ambition stipulated in the Union's Global Strategy.
European Medical Command.	6 March 2018	Belgium , Germany, Czech Republic, Spain, France , Italy, Netherlands, Romania, Slovakia, Sweden.	To develop a permanent European medical capability in order to improve the coordination, management and supply of military medical resources in support of operations and missions.
Network of Logistic Hubs in Europe and Support to Operations.	6 March 2018	Germany , Belgium, Bulgaria, Greece, Spain, France , Croatia, Italy, Cyprus, Hungary, Netherlands, Poland, Slovenia, Slovakia.	To improve the logistics supply for operations and missions by combining existing European infrastructures and processes, in particular by creating logistics hubs and optimising storage and transport space.
Military mobility.	6 March 2018	Netherlands , Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany, Estonia, Greece, Spain, France , Croatia, Italy, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Hungary, Austria, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Finland, Sweden.	To support the commitment of Member States to simplifying and harmonising military transport procedures across the internal borders of the EU.
Energy Operational Function (EOF).	6 March 2018	France , Belgium, Spain, Italy.	To develop new energy supply systems for camps deployed in joint operations, and to ensure that energy issues are taken into account in all operational planning, combat systems design and operations support activities.
Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) Surveillance as a Service (CBRN SaaS).	19 November 2018	Austria , France , Croatia, Hungary, Slovenia.	To establish a permanent network of sensors, particularly terrestrial and airborne drones, to provide a recognised CBRN picture and thus improve the visualisation of operational information used in EU missions and operations.
Co-basing.	19 November 2018	France , Belgium , Czech Republic, Germany, Spain, Netherlands.	To improve the sharing of databases operated by Member States within EU territory or beyond its borders.
Geo-meteorological and Oceanographic (GeoMETOC) Support Coordination Element (GMSCE).	19 November 2018	Germany , Greece, France , Romania.	To strengthen geo-spatial, meteorological and oceanographic support for missions and operations, including the establishment of a European data acquisition infrastructure and the development of common training and management policies.
SPACE
EU Radio Navigation Solution (EURAS).	10 November 2018	France , Belgium, Germany, Spain, Italy.	To strengthen the EU's military positioning, navigation and timing capabilities, based on the Galileo system.
European Military Space Surveillance Awareness Network (EU-SSA-N).	19 November 2018	Italy, France;	To develop an autonomous and sovereign European space warfare military capability, interoperable with the EU-SST (Space Surveillance and Tracking) initiative, and aimed at protecting the space resources and services of the Member States.

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* ⁸¹ Only Malta, Denmark (because of its opt out) and the United Kingdom in its process of withdrawal from the Union are not members.

* ⁸² Digital Command and Control, Communications, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance systems.